Bhutan

2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Asian Countries; Countries

འབྲུག་ཡུལ Druk Yul Kingdom of Bhutan
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "One Nation, One People"
Anthem: Druk tsendhen
Capital (and largest city)	Thimphu 27°28′N 89°38′E
Official languages	Dzongkha, English
Government	Monarchy
- King	Jigme Singye Wangchuck
- Prime Minister	Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk
Formation
- Wangchuk Dynasty	December 17, 1907
Area
- Total	47,000 km² ( 131st) 18,147 sq mi
- Water (%)	negligible
Population
- 2006 estimate	672,425 ( 142nd)
- 2006 census	672,425
- Density	46/km² ( {{{population_density_rank}}}) 119 population_density_rank = 149th/sq mi
GDP ( PPP)	2005 estimate
- Total	$3.007  billion ( 160th)
- Per capita	$3,921 ( 117th)
HDI  (2003)	0.536 (medium) ( 134th)
Currency	Ngultrum ( BTN)
Time zone	BTT ( UTC+6:00)
- Summer ( DST)	not observed ( UTC+6:00)
Internet TLD	.bt
Calling code	+975

The Kingdom of Bhutan (also Bootan) ( IPA: [buː'tɑːn] Listen ) is a landlocked South Asian nation situated between India and People's Republic of China. The entire country is mountainous except for an 8-10 mile (13-16 km) wide strip of subtropical plains in the extreme south which is intersected by valleys known as the Duars. The elevation gain from the subtropical plains to the glacier-covered Himalayan heights exceeds 23,000  feet (7,000  m). Its traditional economy is based on forestry, animal husbandry and subsistence agriculture however these account for less than 50% of a GDP now that Bhutan has become an exporter of hydroelectricity . Cash crops, tourism, and development aid (the latter mostly from India) are also significant. An extensive census done in April, 2006 resulted in a population figure of 672,425. Thimphu is the capital and largest city.

Bhutan is one of the most isolated nations in the world; foreign influences and tourism are regulated by the government to preserve its traditional Tibetan Buddhist culture. Most Bhutanese follow either the Drukpa Kagyu or the Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism. The official language is Dzongkha (lit. "the language of the dzong"). Bhutan is often described as the last surviving refuge of traditional Himalayan Buddhist culture.

Bhutan is linked historically and culturally with its northern neighbour Tibet. Yet politically and economically today's kingdom has drawn much closer to India.

Bhutan has been a monarchy since 1907. The different dzongkhags were united under the leadership of the Trongsa Penlop. The current king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, has made some moves toward constitutional government.

Name

'Bhutan' may be derived from the Sanskrit word 'Bhu-Uttan' which means 'High Land'. In another theory of sanskritisation, 'Bhots-ant' means 'end of Tibet' or 'south of Tibet'. However some Bhutanese call their country 'Druk Yul' and its inhabitants 'Drukpa'. The Dzongkha (and Tibetan) name for the country is 'Druk Yul' (Land of the Dragon). Because of the serenity and the virginity of the country and its landscapes, Bhutan today is sometimes referred to as the Last Shangri-La.

Historically, Bhutan was known by many names, such as 'Lho Mon' (Southern Land of Darkness), 'Lho Tsendenjong' (Southern Land of the Sandalwood), 'Lhomen Khazhi' (Southern Land of Four Approaches), and 'Lho Men Jong' (Southern Land of Medicinal Herbs).

History

Ancient Bhutan

Stone tools, weapons, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as 2000 BC. Historians have theorised that the state of Lhomon (literally, "southern darkness"), or Monyul ("Dark Land", a reference to the Monpa – the aboriginal peoples of Bhutan) may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The names Lhomon Tsendenjong ( Sandalwood Country), and Lhomon Khashi, or Southern Mon (country of four approaches) have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles.

The earliest transcribed event in Bhutan was the passage of the Buddhist saint Padmasambhava (also called Guru Rinpoche) in the 8th century. Bhutan's early history is unclear, because most of the records were destroyed after fire ravaged Punakha, the ancient capital in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronised by the various Mongol and Tibetan overlords. After the decline of the Mongols in the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa sub-sect by the 16th century.

Between 17th century and the modern age

Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring fiefdoms until unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable dzong (fortresses), and promulgated a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such dzong still exist. After Namgyal's death in 1651, Bhutan fell into anarchy. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Tibetans attacked Bhutan in 1710, and again in 1730 with the help of the Mongols. Both assaults were successfully thwarted, and an armistice was signed in 1759.

In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of Cooch Behar to the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to the British East India Company who assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese, and later in attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the Duar War (1864–1865), a confrontation over who would control the Bengal Duars. After Bhutan lost the war, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed between British India and Bhutan. As part of the reparations, the Duars were ceded to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan.

During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of Paro and Trongsa led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of Ugyen Wangchuck, the ponlop (governor) of Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions in the period 1882–1885.

In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognised the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan signed a treaty which let Great Britain to ‘guide’ Bhutan's foreign affairs.

1950s to 1970s

After India gained independence from the United Kingdom on August 15, 1947, Bhutan became of one of the first countries to recognize India's independence.

After the British left the region, a treaty similar to the one of 1910 was signed August 8, 1949 with the newly independent India.

After the Chinese People's Liberation Army entered Tibet in 1951, Bhutan sealed its northern frontier and improved bilateral ties with India. To reduce the risk of Chinese encroachment, Bhutan began a modernisation program that was largely sponsored by India. In 1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature – a 130-member National Assembly – to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations, having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of 16 after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck.

Conflict regarding Bhutan’s Ethnic Nepali Population

Bhutan has a continuing immigration problem with illegal immigration largely by people of Nepali descent. The first waves of migration by Nepalese into Bhutan in the 19th Century.. They were 'naturalized by registration’ by the 1958 Citizenship Act. More continued to settle illegally and this became exacerbated following the introduction of Bhutan’s 5-Year plans in 1961 . From the late 1980s, the government cracked down on illegal immigration which resulted in considerable numbers of people leaving Bhutan. This led to mass demonstrations and violence resulting in even more people leaving the country. Eventually the 'refugee’s' were setup in the refugee camps in eastern Nepal funded by the UNHCR. They remain there to this day.

Recent Developments to the present day

In the recent years (1988 onwards) Nepalese immigrants as well as illegal immigrants have accused Bhutan of violating Human rights. The Bhutanese regime they allege to be responsible for atrocities and crime against her Nepali speaking minority population. The allegations range from rape, executions and eviction of over 100,000 of its minority population, which accounts almost 15% of its people. These allegations remain unproven and are vehemently denied by Bhutan. Most of these refugees settled in UN run refugee camps in south-eastern Nepal where they have remained for 15 years.

In 1998, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his powers to the Prime Minister and allowing for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly. In late 2003, the Bhutanese army successfully launched a large-scale operation to flush out anti-India insurgents who were operating training camps in southern Bhutan.

In 1999, the King also lifted a ban on television and the Internet, making Bhutan one of the last countries to have introduced the television. In his speech, he said that the television was a critical step to the modernization of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's Gross National Happiness (Bhutan is the only country to measure happiness) but warned against the misuse of the television that may erode traditional Bhutanese values.

A new constitution has been presented in early 2005 which will be put up for ratification by a referendum before coming into force. In December 2005, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that he would step down as King of Bhutan in 2008. King Wangchuck said he would be succeeded by his son, the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck.

Geography

The northern region consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 23,000  feet (7,000  m) above sea level; the highest point is claimed to be the Kula Kangri, at 24,780 feet (7,553 m), but detailed topographic studies claim Kula Kangri is wholly in Tibet and modern Chinese measurements claim that Gangkhar Puensum, which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world, is higher at 24,835 feet (7,570 m). Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in central Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 4,900 feet and 8,900 feet (1,500 m and 2,700 m) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa, Raidak, Sankosh, and Manas are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.

In the south, the Shiwalik Hills are covered with dense, deciduous forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 4,900 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars plain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a 6–9 mile (10–15 km) wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy savannah grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra river in India. Data released by the Ministry of agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005. The climate in Bhutan varies with altitude, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate, with year-round snow, in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.

Economy

Though Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest, it has grown very rapidly with about 8% in 2005 and 14% in 2006. As of March 2006, Bhutan's per capita income was US$ 1,321 making it the highest in South Asia. Bhutan's standard of living grew and is one of the best performing in South Asia. Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest and least developed, and is based on agriculture, forestry, and the sale of hydroelectric power to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 80% of the population. Agrarian practices consist largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars are a small cottage industry and a source of income for some. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads, and other infrastructure, difficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has never been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan currently does not have a railway system, though Indian Railways plans to link up southern Bhutan with its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005. The historic trade routes over the high Himalayas, which connected India to Tibet, have been closed since the 1959 military takeover of Tibet (although smuggling activity still brings Chinese goods into Bhutan).

The industrial sector is minimal, production being of the cottage-industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (yak) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and calcium carbide.

Bhutan's currency, the ngultrum, is pegged to the Indian Rupee. The rupee is also accepted as legal tender in the country. Incomes of over Nu 100,000 per annum are taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at about 3% in 2003. Bhutan has a Gross Domestic Product of around USD 2.913 billion (adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around $1,400 (€1,170), ranked 124th. Government revenues total €122 million ($146 million), though expenditures amount to €127 million ($152 million). 60% of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs. Bhutan's exports, principally electricity, cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and spices, total €128 million ($154 million) (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million ($196 million), leading to a trade deficit. Main items imported include fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery, vehicles, fabrics and rice. Bhutan's main export partner is India, accounting for 87.9% of its export goods. Bangladesh (4.6%) and the Philippines (2%) are the other two top export partners. As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (71.3%), Japan (7.8%) and Austria (3%).

In a response to accusations in 1987 by a journalist from UK's Financial Times that the pace of development in Bhutan was slow, the King said that " Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product." This statement appears to have presaged recent findings by western economic psychologists, including 2002 Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman, that questions the link between levels of income and happiness. It signalled his commitment to building an economy that is appropriate for Bhutan's unique culture, based on Buddhist spiritual values, and has served as a unifying vision for the economy. In addition, the policy seems to be reaping the desired results as in a recent survey organized by the University of Leicester in the UK, Bhutan was ranked as the planet's 8th happiest place

Government and politics

Politics of Bhutan takes place in a framework of a traditional absolute monarchy, developing into a constitutional monarchy. The King of Bhutan is head of state. Executive power is exercised by the Lhengye Shungtsog, the council of ministers. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. Political parties are prohibited for the time being.

Districts

For administrative purposes, Bhutan is divided into four dzongdey (administrative zones). Each dzongdey is further divided into dzongkhag (districts). There are 20 dzongkhag in Bhutan. Large dzongkhags are further divided into subdistricts known as dungkhag. At the basic level, groups of villages form a constituency called gewog and are administered by a gup, who is elected by the people.

{ |

1. Bumthang
2. Chukha (old spelling: Chhukha)
3. Dagana
4. Gasa
5. Haa
6. Luentse (Lhuntse)
7. Mongar
8. Paro
9. Pemagatshel (Pemagatsel)
10. Punaka

|

11. Samdrup Jongkhar
12. Samtse (Samchi)
13. Sarpang
14. Thimphu
15. Trashigang (Tashigang)
16. Trashiyangse
17. Trongsa (Tongsa)
18. Tsirang (Chirang)
19. Wangdue Phodrang (Wangdi Phodrang)
20. Zhemang (Shemgang)

|}

Cities and towns

• Jakar - the admistrative headquarters of Bumthang District and the place where Buddhism entered Bhutan.
• Mongar
• Paro - Site of the international airport
• Punakha - The Old Capital
• Phuentsholing - Commercial hub of Bhutan.
• Samdrup Jongkhar
• Thimphu - the largest city and capital of Bhutan
• Trashigang
• Trongsa

Military and foreign affairs

The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service. It includes the Royal Bodyguard and the Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 6,000 and is trained by the Indian Army. It has an annual budget of about US$13.7 million—1.8% of the GDP.

Though the 1949 Treaty with India is still sometimes misinterpreted to mean that India controls Bhutan's foreign affairs, Bhutan today handles all of its foreign affairs itself including the sensitive (to India) border demarcation issue with China. Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 22 countries, including the European Union, with missions in India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Kuwait. It has two UN missions, one in New York and one in Geneva. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has a consulate office in Bhutan.

By a long standing treaty, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without a passport or visa using their national identity cards instead. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, China, although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in the recent past. The first bilateral agreement between China and Bhutan was signed in 1998, and Bhutan has also set up consulates in Macau and Hong Kong. Bhutan’s border with China is largely not demarcated and thus disputed in some places.

On November 13 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into Bhutan under the pretext that environmental conditions had forced their retreat south from the Himalayas. The Bhutanese government allowed this incursion (after the fact) on humanitarian grounds. Soon after, the Chinese began building roads and bridges within Bhutanese territory. Bhutanese Foreign Minister Khandu Wangchuk took up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People's Republic of China has said that the border remains in dispute (completely ignoring the original official pretext for the incursion) and that the two sides continue to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute . Neither the Bhutanese nor Indian governments (India still handles some foreign affairs for Bhutan) have reported any progress regarding this matter (peaceful, cordial or otherwise), and the Chinese continue to this day building infrastructure and increasing their military garrison within Bhutan. An Indian intelligence officer has said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese that they were "overreacting." The Bhutanese newspaper Kuensel has said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border.

Demographics

The population of Bhutan, once estimated at several million, has now been officially downgraded by the Bhutanese government to 750,000, after a census in the early nineties. An extensive census done in June of 2005 resulted in a further reduction of the population figure to 554,000. The government has yet to release demographic breakdown on the new population figures. Most believe that the population was artificially inflated in the seventies because of an earlier perception that nations with populations of less than a million would not be admitted to the United Nations. Hence the United Nation population figures are much higher than the figures provided by the government.

The population density, 45 per square kilometre (117/sq. mi), makes Bhutan one of the least densely populated countries in Asia. Roughly 20% percent of the population lives in urban areas comprised of small towns mainly along the central valley and the southern border. This percentage is increasing rapidly as the pace of rural to urban migration has been picking up. The largest town is the capital, Thimphu, which has a population of 50,000. Other urban areas with significant population are Paro, and Phuentsholing.

Among the Bhutanese people, several principal ethnic groups may be distinguished. The dominant group are the Ngalops, a Buddhist group based in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops ("Easterners"), who are associated with the eastern part of Bhutan (but who traditionally follow the Nyingmapa rather than the official Drukpa Kagyu form of Tibetan Buddhism). These two groups together are called Bhutanese. The remaining 15% of the population is ethnic Nepali, most of whom are Hindu.

The national language is Dzongkha, one of 53 languages in the Tibetan language family. The script, here called Chhokey ("Dharma Language"), is identical with the Tibetan script. The government classifies 19 related Tibetan languages as dialects of Dzongkha. Lepcha is spoken in parts of western Bhutan; Tshangla, a close relative of Dzongkha, is widely spoken in the eastern parts. Khengkha is spoken in central Bhutan. The Nepali language is widely spoken in the south. In the schools English is the medium of instruction and Dzongkha is taught as the national language. Ethnologue lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the Tibeto-Burman family, except Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterised, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. English now has official status as well.

The literacy rate is only 42.2% (56.2% of males and 28.1% of females). People 14 years old and younger comprise 39.1%, while people between 15 and 59 comprise 56.9%, and those over 60 are only 4%. The country has a median age of 20.4 years. Bhutan has a life expectancy of 62.2 years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from the World Bank. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country.

Culture

While the Bhutanese are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is seen to be inaccessible to foreigners. The widespread misperception that Bhutan has set limits on tourist visas, the high tourist tariff and the requirement to go on packaged tours seem to create this impression.

The traditional dress for Ngalong and Sharchop men is the gho, a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the kera. Women wear an ankle-length dress, the kira, which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, the toego, which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Scarves and shawls are also indicators of social standings, as Bhutan has traditionally been a feudal society. Earrings are worn by females. Controversially, Bhutanese law now requires these garments for all Bhutanese citizens.

Rice, and increasingly corn, are the staple foods of the country. The diet in the hills is rich in protein because of the consumption of meat chiefly poultry, yak and beef. Soups of meat, rice, and dried vegetables spiced with chillies and cheese are a favourite meal during the cold seasons. Dairy foods, particularly butter and cheese from yaks and cows, are also popular, despite the scarcity of milk (because all milk is turned to butter and cheese). Popular beverages include butter tea, tea, locally brewed rice wine and beer. Bhutan is the only country in the world to have banned tobacco smoking and the sale of tobacco.

Bhutan's national sport is archery, and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from Olympic standards not only in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. There are two targets placed over 100 metres apart and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event and competitions are organised between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There are usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing cheerleaders comprising wives and supporters of the participating teams. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter's ability. Darts (khuru) is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a 10cm nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target ten to twenty metres away.

Another traditional sport is the digor, which can be best described as shot put combined with horseshoe throwing. Soccer is an increasingly popular sport. In 2002, Bhutan's national soccer team played Montserrat - billed as 'The Other Final', the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in the World Cup Final, but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world's two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu's Changlimithang National Stadium, and Bhutan won 4-0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker Johan Kramer. Rigsar is the new emergent style of popular music, played on a a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences. Traditional genres include the zhungdra and boedra.

Characteristic of the region is a type of fortress known as dzong architecture.

Bhutan has numerous public holidays, most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include the winter solstice (around January 1, depending on the lunar calendar), the lunar New Year (February or March), the King's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official start of monsoon season ( September 22), National Day ( December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations. Even the secular holidays have religious overtones, including religious dances and prayers for blessing the day.

Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition facemasks and stylised costumes, depict heroes, demons, death heads, animals, gods, and caricatures of common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient folk and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient art of mask making.